Responsibility for the construction and management of rural wells and boreholes has been transferred to communes (AMCOW 2011). Dashed and dotted lines indicate mean proportions in the amalgamated kills for males and females respectively. The Lake Chad basin contains three main geological units: a upper Quaternary-Lower Pliocene series; the Tertiary Continental Terminal; and the lower Cretaceous series of the Hamadien Continental and the Continental Intercalaire (GWP 2013). This is due to the lower contribution of buffalo to female diet in the early dry season which is compensated by an increase in other species consumption (Table 1). In our case this is particularly true for the class small antelopes. In semi-arid ecosystems, herbivore distribution is generally more homogeneous in the wet season, when surface water is abundant, than in the dry season when only permanent sources remain. In neighbouring Yenga community (20 km from Mambele) where WWF also rehabilitated a stand tap, some residents cover a distance of more than 3 km to get water. Approximately 98% of the annual rainfall occurs from October to April and the long-term annual average (calculated for the period 19182007) is 632 mm (range: 3241160 mm). Cameroon is rich in national parks and wildlife reserves, including the Waza National Park in the north (which contains both forest and savanna animals), the Dja Faunal Reserve (a UNESCO World Heritage site), and the Campo Ma'an National Park in the southwest (which has elephants, hippos, leopards, and plenty of primates). It is used to supplement the domestic and industrial water demand of Douala (Mafany and Fantong 2006). In the north, the Bnou River flows north and west into the Niger. Here, we investigate the seasonal contribution of the different herbivore species, prey preference and distribution of kills (i.e. 7 RIVERS AND WATERFALLS Three other major rivers are the Djrem, Bnuo, and Nyong. Values >0 indicate preference, values <0 suggest use but avoidance. Citation: Davidson Z, Valeix M, Van Kesteren F, Loveridge AJ, Hunt JE, Murindagomo F, et al. It is located in banakata. With 208 km 3 of renewable water resources, only 1 km 3 is used for drinking water. Even though it is difficult to know from which individual a faecal sample comes from, and male and female lions are sometimes found together at a kill, samples were mainly collected at female kills and hence the faecal approach can be considered as more representative of female lion diet. Your email address will not be published. Some seasonal patterns were suggested for secondary prey, however. What are the characteristics of rivers in Cameroon? This brochure contains only modifications / changes, undertaken on the longitudinal Consequently, waterhole areas are attractive for all herbivores in the dry season and attractive for grazers in the wet season, which corresponds to the period when most grazers have their young. The Dja and Kad drain southeastward into the Congo River. As such, the regular need to access drinking water constrains the movement of herbivores, and hence their distribution in the dry season [9][12]. 2006. The Lake Chad Basin Aquifer System: a case study for the research project 'Transboundary groundwater management in Africa'. Sightings of Lion in the Hluhluwe Umfolozi vary according to various factors. The whole country suffered from droughts in 1981-87, 1991-1999, 2001-2005 . Alker M. 2008. In both rural and urban areas, people suffer because of the poor water quality in Cameroon. They are described in the relevant sections below. For more information on the map see the, Land Cover Map of Cameroon, from the European Space Agency GlobCover 2.3, 2009. 1998). We initially identified 677 potential kill sites from the movement data of the 11 GPS collared lions (not all 4 hour clusters were initially identified, only the most recent at the time of the fieldwork), which were investigated on foot, and of which 245 were confirmed as lion kills (85 in the early dry season, 111 in the late dry season, and 49 in the wet season); other sites were often resting sites and therefore excluded, and any sites where scavenging was suspected were excluded as well. Cameroon's location on the Atlantic coast in central Africa between latitude 2 and 13north, has a huge and diversified water resources potential. Jacobs index also revealed that buffalo was the most intensively selected species throughout the year. We recognise that there may have been a small number of instances where lions scavenged other predators kills, however, we assume this to be negligible based on our kill site classification methodology. Volcanic centres form moderately to highly productive fractured/weathered aquifers. (2013) Seasonal Diet and Prey Preference of the African Lion in a Waterhole-Driven Semi-Arid Savanna. 1. Etosha Cameroon has a dense network of perennial rivers. 3A). Molua EL and Lambi CM. Cameroon has seen relatively high political and social stability since independence, with the same president since 1982. _____ _____ abiotic factor environmental conditions biotic factor. Positional data were recorded hourly during the night and retrieved at regular intervals. Once biomass consumption was estimated, buffalo contributed the most to lion dietary intake (58% for males and 39% for females), followed by elephant (23% for males and 20% for females) and giraffe (7% for males and 18% for females), collectively accounting for 88% and 77% of the prey biomass consumed for males and females respectively (Table 3). Because of this water activity the front quarters of the Okavango Delta lions are more developed than those of other lions. Bold dashed lines indicate means. Seasonal differences in the preference of prey were tested using Friedman rank sum tests. Some years back some boreholes were rehabilitated by either the local council or the community. Temperatures vary drastically in the Kalahari, going below zero on winter nights and reaching as high as 40 degrees Celsius during summer days. If reproducing diagrams that include third party information, please cite both the Africa Groundwater Atlas and the third party sources. For full functionality of this site, please enable JavaScript. Download a GIS shapefile of the Cameroon geology and hydrogeology map. We owe thanks to Wilderness Safaris, The Hide Safaris, Touch the Wild Safaris, Zimbabwe Sun international and the Gwaai ICA for permission to work on their concessions. Some - eg Mamf - contain evaporites. The frequency of occurrence of species in the faecal dataset was highest for kudu (24%) followed by buffalo and medium Bovidae (each representing 18%; the medium Bovidae class is dominated by sable and eland for faecal data), small antelopes (17%), and giraffe (7%) collectively contributing 84% of the species found in faecal samples (Table 2). Lions of the okavango delta. Proportional prey selection did not differ significantly between seasons neither for males (Friedman 2early dry-late dry=10.17, df=7, p=0.18; Friedman 2early dry-wet=9.57, df=7, p=0.21; Friedman 2late dry-wet=11.70, df=7, p=0.11), nor for females even though results approached significance level (Friedman 2early dry-late dry=12.95, df=7, p=0.07; Friedman 2early dry-wet=11.67, df=7, p=0.11; Friedman 2late dry-wet=12.45, df=7, p=0.08). Yevalla, G-M S, Blaise B B, Emmanuel M, Seth R E, Beka T and Tabod T C. 2020. Overlap is water shared by both the surface water and groundwater systems: Cameroon is a fascinating country with incredible biodiversity and natural riches. Many studies have suggested two principal causes: (1) human activities such as poor farming practices,. Male lions showed a preference for medium Bovidae in the early dry and wet seasons, and for Suidae in the late dry and wet seasons (Fig. Browsers, not grazers: if you see a rhino mowing grassland, it will be a southern white. Seasonal differences in the distribution of prey consumed were tested using chi-square tests. The Gemsbok is a large African antelope with very long horns, sometimes used in defence against the Kalahari lions. Cameroon also has a number of smaller lakes throughout the country. Boreholes are typically between 40 and 200 m deep. Altitude varies from 800 m to 1100 m and rainfall data were available from 1918 to 2007. The former French colony won independence in 1960, and the former British colony joined with it in 1961. Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. The city of Harare is supplied with water from Lakes Chivero and Darwendale or Manyame river, Seke and Harava dams on the outskirts of the city. For female lions, kudu and to a lesser extent the group medium Bovidae are the most important secondary prey. The rural population largely relies on groundwater for water supply, through springs, hand dug wells, and boreholes equipped with hand pumps (Ako Ako et al. 23 Views. Performed the experiments: ZD JEH FVK. View our Cookie Policy. They typically form small, local aquifers, limited to areas where the rock has been fractured and weathered to increase its permeability. Samples were collected during kill site investigations, air dried and stored in paper bags for later analysis. A number of agreements and cooperative activities exist between these countries (e.g Alker 2008). The uppermost sandy layer is hydraulically connected with brackish waters in the Wouri estuary, and saline waters of the coastal wetlands. Zeke Davidson, The access rate to fresh water is still low and far from the millennium's goal target (43,9%); the rate of water sanitation and hygiene is worse (36%). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. The prey items detected were categorised similarly to the prey detected from the kills. Prey shift might be a response to larger variations in local prey abundance, perhaps over longer periods as shown for the Kruger National Park [21], or in ecosystems where more significant variation occurs in prey abundance over shorter time scales as shown for the Serengeti [41]. In the 19th century, soldiers of the Fulani Empire founded the Adamawa Amirate in the north of present-day Cameroon, while various other chiefdoms held power across other parts of the country. There was no seasonal difference in diet composition for male lions (2early dry-late dry=4.13, df=7, p=0.76; 2early dry-wet=8.63, df=7, p=0.28; 2late dry-wet=7.85, df=7, p=0.35). Of the 322 billion cubic meters of total available water resources, groundwater constitutes 21% (57 billion cubic meters) of this resource (Ako Ako et al. Unconsolidated aquifers - including alluvium, marine and estuarine deposits - occur in many parts of the country, and are typically in hydraulic continuity with underlying bedrock aquifers. Boreholes are between 60 and 200 m deep (UN 1988). "An average of 300 people depend on the water source," says Njounan Tegomo Olivier, WWF Collaborative Management Officer. Kill analysis revealed 14 different species being utilised by lions (Table 1). Climate, Hydrology and Water Resources in Cameroon. Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Department of Zoology, Oxford University, Tubney House, Abingdon, United Kingdom, Where does the Cameroon River get its water? All necessary permits were obtained for the described field study from the appropriate agency (Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority, 23(1) (c) (ii) 01/20052007). African elephants that have become accustomed to the relentless cycles of drought in Etosha and map its water sources in their memories. Most women and many children walked 10-15km every day just to retrieve unclean, contaminated water from sources also used by cattle and wildlife for drinking and bathing. Faecal data, mainly representative of female diet, suggest that kudu (revealed as the second main prey for females from kill data) may be an equally important prey species for female lions and that this species may be under-represented by kill data. We used data from 245 kills and 74 faecal samples. What Are The Specific Water Sources The Lions Exploit. It is located in rural area. Sahara Desert The largest is Lake Chad, of which 800 km2 (Little Chad phase) to 1 800 km2 (Normal Chad phase) are Cameroon territory, or 840% of the lake area, depending on the floods (Welcomme, 1979). : 19 192 m3/year, Per Capita in 2005 As in data were modified to ensure consistency with water resources data. Swakopmund, Pretoria This page was last modified on 10 November 2022, at 14:15. The Project was supported by the Eppley Foundation, Panthera Foundation and the kind generosity of Rivington and Joan Winant, Adrian Gardiner and the Lilian Jean Kaplan Foundation. Prey moves between the islands and lions have to cross the water to follow. This section provides a summary of the hydrogeology of the main aquifers in Cameroon. 2). Abstraction boreholes in the Hama Kossou, Babouri-Figuil and Mayo Oulo basins are typically between 120 and 180 m deep. More information on average rainfall and temperature for each of the climate zones in Cameroon can be seen at the Cameroon climate page. The two aquifers are separated by mudstones of the Nkappa formation. Vassolo S. 2012. There are a number of natural lakes in Cameroon. What water sources do lions exploit in zimbabwemaryland lacrosse camps 2021 Subscribe to the texas a&m today newsletter for the latest news and stories every week. changing relative selection of prey species between seasons, is not characteristic of the Hwange lion population at least for the primary prey. Marion Valeix, There is no evidence for widespread inorganic contamination of groundwaters, even in urban areas, but there is widespread bacteriological contamination of shallow groundwater in urban areas, such as Yaound and Douala, derived from domestic, industrial and hospital waste (Mafany and Fandong 2006). Lions were one of those species which were not spared from the curiosity of the world. Nonetheless, kill investigations revealed that elephant is an important prey species, contributing 23% and 20% of biomass to male and female lion diet respectively. British Geological Survey. Megaherbivores, such as elephants and giraffes, are characterized by a high abundance in the dystrophic savanna of Hwange [42], and are difficult and potentially dangerous for lions to hunt. We assessed lion diet by combining carcass observations and faeces collection from GPS clusters, a method with recognized strengths [3], [4]. The Ministry of Water Resources and Energy / Ministere De Leau Et De Lenergie (MINEE) has responsibility for water supply and sanitation in both rural areas and towns through the Directorate of Directorate of Water (DE: Direction de lEau). It is covered by 6 of the 8 main climatic units encountered in Cameroon (Kpoumi 2015) which are: (1) altitudinal tropical climate of the Adamawa; (2) mountainous tropical climate of the West;. Petroleum exploitation has fallen in recent decades but is still a significant contributor to the economy. This suggested that surface-water resources form passive traps and contribute to the structuring of lion foraging behaviour. A BGR project funded by the German Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) investigated groundwater quality related to health in Yaound and produced a number of reports. It is located in banakata. Cameroons location on the atlantic coast in central africa between latitude 2 and 13north, has a huge and diversified water resources potential. In northeast Cameroon, the Lake Chad basin aquifer is shared with neighbouring countries. Buffalo consistently emerged as the most frequently utilised prey in all seasons by both male (56%) and female (33%) lions, contributing the most to lion dietary biomass. Prey species proportional biomass contributing to lion diet, as detected from kills, faecal samples and observed hunts. Favourable soils and climate have allowed plantation agriculture to flourish, with extensive export of cash crops, including coffee and cocoa. Groundwater in the deeper Cretaceous sandstone aquifer is dominated by K/Na-HCO3 types, and typically of good quality. The local presence of evaporites in the Mamf basin leads to groundwaters of sodium-chloride composition (Mafany and Fantong 2006). Required fields are marked *. Juveniles were taken almost exclusively (Fig. Most groundwater in Cameroon is thought to be of good natural inorganic quality. German Development Institute. We then converted the frequency of occurrence into biomass estimates using the average adult male and female mass (from [1], [34]). This index minimises the biases associated with small sample size (prey proportions below 10%), rare food items and non-linearity in proportional use over time [6]. Faecal analysis revealed a higher number of species occurring in the lion diet (20 species), owing to the detection of more small prey items, unexpectedly including climbing mice (Dendromus spp.) . Generally, flow patterns of all Cameroon rivers are typified by rainfall. We use cookies to analyse how visitors use our website and to help us provide the best possible experience for users. 2015) of groundwater. Some urban centres widely use groundwater, including Douala. Additionally, giraffe were consumed in proportion to their availability in the early and late dry seasons by female lions, and contributed 18% of biomass to female lion diet. Cameroons national parks are vast and the dedicated wildlife authorities and staff on the ground oftentimes lack adequate financial support and resources to carry out effective management. The Africa Groundwater Atlas is hosted by the British Geological Survey (BGS) and includes information from third party sources. 2). Dots represent data outside this range. We used data from 74 faecal samples. 3B and C). In the northern region, increasing population combined with a reduction in the quantity and regularity of rainfall has resulted in persistent drought and reduced groundwater resources (Ako Ako et al. Per Capita in 2000 : 19 192 m 3 /year. First, seasonal importance of each species was assessed by (i) investigating, for lion males and females separately, the frequency of occurrence of prey species at kills, and (ii) comparing seasonal results from faecal data with no sex differentiation. It was in Etosha that a study proved that elephant can communicate using infrasonic sounds; they literally 'bounce' these off a thermal inversion layer in the atmosphere. Artesian pressure is being reduced, possibly due to over pumping. GWP (Global Water Partnership). This section provides a summary of the geology of Cameroon. Manufacturing industry accounted for some 30% of GDP in 2009. Lion kills were located in a preferentially selected zone around artificial waterholes, suggesting that these scarce resources form passive traps for ungulate prey. Lions get their water like most other savanna mammals, relying on watering holes and temporary pools to hydrate. Four good reasons to indulge in cryptocurrency! Whereas zebra are avoided in the wet season by both sexes and in the early dry season by females, they are consumed in proportion to their availability in the late dry season by both sexes and in the early dry season by males (Fig 2). This aquifer is not vulnerable to saline intrusion (Mafany and Fantong 2006). These sandstones form a productive aquifer, with permeabilities of around 8 to 80 m/day; transmissivities of 300 to 1700 m/day; and a storage coefficient of 0.025. The main aquifer in this basin is formed of unconsolidated Pliocene (Tertiary)-Quaternary sands, which form an upper and a lower aquifer, separated by a clay layer. Jacobs index finally revealed a very strong preference for kills within 2 km from a waterhole for all prey species, except small antelopes, in all seasons. 2009). In both rural and urban areas, people suffer because of the poor water quality in Cameroon. The most frequently occurring prey species were buffalo for both sexes: 56% for males and 33% for females. Sossusvlei Conservation of the trees around this water source has helped to keep it flowing. Water and Sanitation Program. Cameroon: Sahara Desert A Threat to Livelihood and Bio-Diversity. In African semi-arid savannas, surface-water is a heterogeneously distributed, limiting resource which becomes scarcer as the dry season progresses. Seasonal variation in the relative contribution by different prey species to lion kills, for males (M) and females (F), distinguishing age class proportions. Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority, Causeway, Harare, Zimbabwe. 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